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## What is neuroscience?
Neuroscience is a field of scientific study that seeks to understand how the nervous system carries out its functions and what goes wrong when it doesn’t. While we understand much about nervous system function, there is much to learn. You are the scientists who will figure it all out.
Neuroscience is a field of scientific study that seeks to understand how the nervous system carries out its functions and what goes wrong when it doesn’t.
[President Obama brain initiative](http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/video/obama-says-brain-initiative-will-be-transformative-18861944)
While humankind has learned alot about nervous system structure and function, there is a great deal left to understand. It's up to you to figure it all out.
http://courses.pbsci.ucsc.edu/mcdb/bio125/
Note:
Welcome. This class will be an Introduction to Neuroscience– Neuroscience is a field that by necessity integrates information and techniques from many other scientific disciplines— not just biological sciences like genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, immunology, physiology. But also physics, engineering, computer science, psychology. And these days neuroscience is touching upon fields as varied as sociology, criminology, marketing, ethics, and the law. So what is Neuroscience? Neuroscience is fundamentally a field that…
Welcome. This class will be an Introduction to Neuroscience– Neuroscience is a field that by necessity integrates information and techniques from many other scientific disciplines— not just biological sciences like genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, immunology, physiology. But also physics, engineering, computer science, psychology. And these days neuroscience is touching upon fields as varied as sociology, criminology, marketing, ethics, and the law. So what is Neuroscience? Neuroscience is fundamentally a field that...
And ultimately it is a field of science that seeks to understand how a lump of biological tissue siting inside our heads has evolved the capability of asking questions about its own nature.
Thus it will be you, and your children, and your children’s children that will figure it all out and literally allow human beings to reach the stars or save us from the cylons on battlestar galactica, whichever comes first. And hopefully recent funding initiatives will help in this cause.
--
## Site keyboard bindings
* Navigate: *arrow keys* and *spacebar*
* Fullscreen: *f*
* Overview: *o* or *esc*
* Zoom object: *alt/option–click*
---
## What are the nervous system’s functions?
* The nervous system organizes and controls an individual’s appropriate interactions with the environment.
* Thus, it’s functions are dynamic, vast and wide-ranging – extending to include all thoughts, perceptions, bodily actions, behaviors, and even the very essence of one’s being: consciousness and the mind.
['Star Trek' Wars](http://on.cc.com/1r4rOE1)
http://courses.pbsci.ucsc.edu/mcdb/bio125/
<figure><img src="figs/ScreenShot2016-01-04at12.58.17PM_e1dcf52.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
* The nervous system organizes and controls an individual’s appropriate interactions with the environment
* Thus, it’s functions are dynamic, vast and wide-ranging – extending to include all thoughts, perceptions, bodily actions, behaviors, and even the very essence of one’s being: consciousness and the mind
Note:
What does the nervous system do? It organizes and controls an individuals interactions with the environment. It does this by processing current or past experiential information and making and executing behavioral decisions.
Therefore the brain’s functions are dynamic, vast and wide ranging, and extends to include all thoughts, perceptions, and actions and the very core of what it means for each of one us to be us–– consciousness and the mind. It is this complex lump of biological tissue, this emergent computational system that allows us humans to not only imagine the future, but to create it as well.
--
## Neuroscience and the future of humankind
<figure><img src="figs/From_the_Earth_to_the_Moon_Jules_Verne_695f816.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="figs/ScreenShot2016-01-04at12.58.17PM_e1dcf52.png" height="100px"><figcaption>['Star Trek' Wars](http://on.cc.com/1r4rOE1)</figcaption></figure>
Note:
Ever since the dawn of the industrial age in the mid 19th century and Jules Verne's 1865 novel 'From the Earth to the Moon' humans have been dreaming of the future, not just here but among the stars
Since that time we've dreamed up fantastical futures in shows like Star Trek and the Jetsons and dystopian ones in Blade Runner and the Terminator or even ones past (for example think "long time ago in a galaxy far far away...")
Many of things dreamed of are already presentImagine some of things thought of and now already present flying aeroplanes, personal landspeeders, rocket ships to distant planets
\
- Edgar Rice Burroughs John Carter thought waves example.
---
@@ -40,69 +63,74 @@ Therefore the brain’s functions are dynamic, vast and wide ranging, and extend
## We will focus on a few basic features of the nervous system
* The mechanisms by which neurons produce signals.
* The patterns of connections between nerve cells.
* The relationship of different patterns of interconnections to different types of behavior.
* The mechanisms by which neurons produce signals
* The patterns of connections between nerve cells
* The relationship of different patterns of interconnections to different types of behavior
[http://courses.pbsci.ucsc.edu/mcdb/bio125/](http://courses.pbsci.ucsc.edu/mcdb/bio125/)
<figure><img src="figs/ScreenShot2016-01-04at3.59.29PM_dea1077.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<div style="width:700px; padding:25px 0; float:left;"><a href="http://courses.pbsci.ucsc.edu/mcdb/bio125/">http://courses.pbsci.ucsc.edu/mcdb/bio125/</a></div>
<div style="width:250px; float:left;"><img src="figs/ScreenShot2016-01-04at3.59.29PM_dea1077.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></div>
Note:
…
---
## The nervous system and its function is the product of both our genes and our environment
<div style="font-size:0.9em">
<div></div>
* We are now in a gene-centric “post-genomic” phase of neuroscience
* Human genome sequenced- approximately 20,000 genes.
* Most genes are expressed in the brain, either during development or in the adult. It is the spatial and temporal regulation of these genes that builds a nervous system.
* Mice, flies, and worms have nervous systems and even express many of the same genes as humans. Genetics allows us to correlate gene activity with nervous system function.
* Neuroscience therefore encompasses many fields, including genetics, cell biology, physiology, and development biology.
</div>
Note:
…
---
##Genome size does not correlate with nervous system complexity
## Genome size does not predict nervous system complexity
100,000,000,000
<div style="font-size:0.7em">
<div></div>
71,000,000
organism | # of genes | # of base pairs | # of neurons | development time (young adult)
---------- | ---------- | --- | ------------ | -------------------------
*Caenorhabditis elegans* (nematode) | ~19,000 | ~97 million | 302 | 8 hrs
*Drosophila melanogaster* (fruit fly) | ~15,000 | ~120 million | ~250,000 | 7–11 days
*Danio rerio* (zebrafish) | ~24,000 | ~1.5 billion | ~10,000,000 | 30 days
Mouse | ~25,000 | ~3.5 billion | ~71,000,000 | 2-3 months
Human | ~20,000 | ~3.5 billion | ~100,000,000,000 | 18 years
African elephant | ~20,000 | ~3.1 billion | ~267,000,000,000 | 18 years
302
</div>
10,000,000
250,000
Number of
neurons in whole nervous system
<figure><img src="figs/Neurscience5e-Box-01A-0_0eadd2b.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<!-- <figure><img src="figs/Neurscience5e-Box-01A-0_0eadd2b.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure> -->
Note:
Number of genes is not related to nervous system complexity or size. The nematode c. elegans has just 302 neurons, and yet its genome contains virtually as many genes as a humans. An african elephant brain weighs 3 times more than a human brain and has 3 times the number of neurons.
The largest brains are those of sperm whales, weighing about 8 kg (18 lb). An elephant's brain weighs just over 5 kg (11 lb), a bottlenose dolphin's 1.5 to 1.7 kg (3.3 to 3.7 lb), whereas a human brain is around 1.3 to 1.5 kg (2.9 to 3.3 lb). Brain size tends to vary according to body size.
* Drosophila 7-11 days (28-34degs C)
* zebrafish 3-4 days juvenile swimming and visual behavior. young adult at 3 mo. full adult at 6 mo.
* genome sizes at http://www.biology-pages.info/G/GenomeSizes.html
---
## There are many brain-specific and non-brain specific genes expressed in the nervous system
<figure><img src="figs/Neurscience5e-Fig-1_d17d3e9.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="figs/Neuroscience5e-Fig-01.01-1R_7806e74.jpg" height="400px"><figcaption>Neuroscience 5e Fig. 1.1</figcaption></figure>
Note:
There are many genes are expressed only in the brain, but there are many genes expressed in the brain that are not specific to only the nervous system.
Out of those 20000 genes, there are many expressed genes that are common between the nervous system and other tissues, however there is also a substantial fraction that are expressed specifically in the nervous system
---
@@ -110,133 +138,145 @@ There are many genes are expressed only in the brain, but there are many genes e
Mutation in a spindle pole gene call ASPM1
<figure><img src="figs/Neurscience5e-Fig-2_920386b.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="figs/Neuroscience5e-Fig-01.01-3R_562abf7.jpg" height="300px"><figcaption>Neuroscience 5e Fig. 1.1</figcaption></figure>
Note:
Now mutations in single genes in the right place in our genome can cause drastic effects on the formation of our brain’s wiring.
For example, shown here is a person with a mutation in ASPM1 a protein used to make spindle poles for mitotic stem cells during embryonic development.
But most single gene mutations do not cause such drastic effects, with a more subtle and complex set of genetic and environmental risk factors causing neurological disease, similar to and probably exceeding the complex etiology of cancer.
---
##Model organisms— C. Elegans
## Model organisms— C. elegans
* It is hard to visualize and monitor neurons and manipulate genes in humans so neuroscientists study a number of different organisms.
* Worm nervous system highlighted with green fluorescent protein (GFP): 302 cells
* It is hard to visualize and monitor neurons and manipulate genes in humans so neuroscientists study a number of different organisms
* The nematode worm *C. elegans* is great for genetic engineering and has a tiny nervous system (just 302 neurons)
<div><img src="figs/Adult_Caenorhabditis_elegans_d76c553.jpg" height="150px" title="CC from wikipedia https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2680458"><figcaption>C. elegans– commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2680458</figcaption></div>
<div><img src="figs/c-elegans-connectome_2_9548c95.jpg" height="150px"><figcaption>C. elegans wiring diagram– [openworm.org](http://www.openworm.org), neuroconstruct.org</figcaption></div>
<figure><img src="figs/image_69d9fc5.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
C. elegans is a nematode or roundworm. It is non-infectious and non-parasitic organism just 1 mm long and it can be easily genetically engineered. That means you can introduce mutations to genes or express fancy inert proteins that allow you to track the function of genes and cells in living animals making it a great model organism. For neuroscientists it has 302 total neurons making it a great model organism.
Now to do neuroscience research we have to use model organisms of course. Small number of neurons, can be labeled using GFP or other means. Many mutant worms have been isolated that affect nervous system function.
---
##Model organisms— Mus. Musculus
The mouse is a common model in neuroscience research
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5D7bbyguACI](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5D7bbyguACI)
<figure><img src="figs/image1_fb40934.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="figs/image2_920ce96.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
However, we have more than a million neurons that just form the optic nerve from each of our eyes!
---
## Model organisms— squid
Squids have unusually large axons
Squids have unusually large axons (1 mm diameter)
1 mm
<div style="width:250px; float:left;"><img src="figs/20000_squid_holding_sailor_f98a242.jpg" height="300px"><figcaption>20000 Lieues Sous les Mers, J. Verne</figcaption></div>
<figure><img src="figs/image3_ce90492.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<div style="width:500px; float:left;"><img src="figs/Squid_Loligo_pealei_cbafe46.jpg" height="300px"><figcaption>Atlantic squid, *Loligo pealei*</figcaption></div>
<!-- <div><img src="figs/axon_large_9a8a930.jpg" height="300px"><figcaption>Squid giant axon, R. Hanlon MBL Woods Hole</figcaption></div> -->
<figure><img src="figs/image4_9435689.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
jules verne
Jules Verne provided inspiration for the space age
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Cephalopoda
Order: Teuthida
Family: Loliginidae
Genus: Loligo
Atlantic squid (Loligo pealei)
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Cephalopoda
Order: Sepiida
Family: Sepiidae
Genus: Sepia
Other important invertebrate organisms in neuroscience research include sea slugs and fruit flies.
---
##Model organisms
Higher mammals are used to study more complicated brain functions
## Model organisms— Mus. musculus
<figure><img src="figs/image5_a061f83.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
The mouse is a common model in neuroscience research
<figure><img src="figs/image6_57f7719.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<div style="width:225px; float:left;"><img src="figs/adult_mouse_jax_ec76ad4.jpg" height="200px"><figcaption>Common house mouse *Mus. musculus*, jax.org</figcaption></div>
<div style="width:300px; float:left;"><img src="figs/abi_adult_mouse_brain_e79e400.jpg" height="200px"><figcaption>Mouse brain 3D rendering, [Brain Explorer 2](http://mouse.brain-map.org/static/brainexplorer)</figcaption></div>
<div style="width:430px; float:left;"><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/stPThgZ2Y5o" width="420" height="315"></iframe><figcaption>Green labeled neurons inside a mouse brain</figcaption></div>
Note:
Research with cats was critical for work from the 1950s to 1980s that allowed neuroscientist to learn how visual signals are processed in the highests circuits of the mammalian brain.
* Mouse brain is about 2 cm in length
* genetically tractable
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stPThgZ2Y5o](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stPThgZ2Y5o)
And research with monkeys has been really essential for learning about perceptual, attentional, and decision making in the mammalian brain.
---
## Model organisms– other mammals
Higher mammals are used to study more complicated brain functions
<div><figure style="float:left; display:table;"><img src="figs/1f412_3fc8278.svg" height="200px"><figcaption style="display:table-caption; caption-side: bottom;">Cats– visual system function, locomotion</figcaption></figure></div>
<div><figure style="float:left; display:table;"><img src="figs/1f412_f738dec.svg" height="200px"><figcaption style="display:table-caption; caption-side: bottom;">Non-human primates– attention, decision making, vision, brain machine interfaces</figcaption></figure></div>
<div style="width:430px; float:left;"><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/L2O58QfObus" width="420" height="315"></iframe><figcaption>Rhesus monkey mind controlled wheelchair</figcaption></div>
Note:
Research with cats was critical for work from the 1950s to 1980s that allowed neuroscientist to learn how visual signals are processed in the highest circuits of the mammalian brain.
And research with rhesus monkeys has been essential for learning about perceptual, attentional, and decision making in the mammalian brain together with research into brain-machine interfaces that have direct clinical applications for human patients.
3rs: Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement
---
## Brain lesion patients
* Lesions in brains or degenerative diseases help us understand brain functi* Phineas Gage- Railroad spike through frontal lobes changed his personality.
* Lesions in brains or degenerative diseases help us understand brain function
* Phineas Gage– Railroad spike through frontal lobes changed his personality
<figure><img src="figs/image7_0e1af20.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<div><img src="figs/image7_0e1af20.png" height="200px"><figcaption></figcaption></div>
<figure><img src="figs/image8_c3232ea.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<div><img src="figs/image8_c3232ea.png" height="200px"><figcaption></figcaption></div>
Note:
Furthermore, studies of patients with brain lesions has historically been key to localizing parts of the brain that affect emotional states and learning and memory.
e.g. Phineas Gage in 1848 his whole personality changed after the spike went through his brain.
Harlow wrote: “the equilibrium... between his intellectual faculties and his animal propensities seems to have been destroyed”
---
## What are brains made of?
So what are brains made of? A glob of squishy jello?
<figure><img src="figs/image9_e303503.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
So what are brains made of? Is it just a glob of squishy jello?
---
##What are brains made of?
Wikimedia Commons
<figure><img src="figs/image10_c067a0a.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="figs/image11_fbb6fc7.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
@@ -245,10 +285,9 @@ Note:
Yes— but this tissue is some pretty complicated soft tissue. The answer is the brain is made of cells.
Shown here is a section through a human brain. If we zoom in on a tiny part of it
---
## How many neurons in a human brain?
@@ -258,13 +297,14 @@ Shown here is a section through a human brain. If we zoom in on a tiny part of
* 100 million
* 1 billion
* 10 billion
* 100 billion
* 100 billion <!-- .element: class="fragment highlight-green" -->
* 1 trillion
Note:
---
##Brains are made up of cells
## Brains are made of cells
* Camillo Golgi (Italy)– believed that cells in the brain were connected forming a continuous network (reticular theory).
* Santiago Ramon y Cajal (Spain)– Brains made up of single cells-communicate at specialized areas called synapses.
@@ -278,19 +318,24 @@ Cells widely accepted everywhere else in the 1830’s. Neuroscientists last to
## The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906
"in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system"
>"in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system"
<div style="width:300px; float:left;"><img src="figs/CamilloGolgi_5c05797.jpg" height="200px"><figcaption class="big">
Camillo Golgi
Pavia University
Pavia, Italy
</figcaption></div>
<div style="width:600px; float:left;"><img src="figs/SantiagoRamónyCajal_dd682a4.jpg" height="200px"><figcaption class="big">
Santiago Ramón y Cajal
Madrid University
Madrid, Spain
<figure><img src="figs/CamilloGolgi_5c05797.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
</figcaption></div>
<figure><img src="figs/SantiagoRamónyCajal_dd682a4.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
@@ -367,8 +412,6 @@ Note:
* structural support for neurons
* critical role in brain development
<figure><img src="figs/Fig_6852903.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
greek for ‘glue’
@@ -377,51 +420,28 @@ greek for ‘glue’
## Types of glial cells
* Microglia- phagocytes, mobilized after infection, injury, or disease
* Macroglia- three types
* Astrocytes– CNS, most numerous type of glia and contain star shaped long processes.
* Oligodendrocytes– Myelin producing cells of the CNS.
* Schwann cells– Myelin producing cells of the PNS.
<div style="width:600px; float:left;">
<div></div>
* Astrocytes– Support cells of the CNS, most numerous type of glia and contain star shaped long processes
* Microglia- CNS macrophages. Act as phagocytes, mobilized after infection, injury, or disease
* Oligodendrocytes– Myelin producing cells of the CNS
* Schwann cells– Myelin producing cells of the PNS
* Satellite cells– Support cells of the PNS
Note:
</div>
<div style="width:300px; margin:0 25px; float:left;"><img src="figs/Fig_6852903.png" height="500px"><figcaption></figcaption></div>
<!-- <figure><img src="figs/10-01_GlialCells_1_bddb845.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure> -->
---
##Glial Cell Types
* Microglia
* Astrocytes
* Oligodendrocytes
* Schwann cells
* Satellite cells
<figure><img src="figs/10-01_GlialCells_1_bddb845.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
Satellite glial cells are glial cells that cover the surface of nerve cell bodies in sensory, sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia.
---
##Schwann cells
* Myelinate axons in PNS
* One axon per cell
Cross section through PNS nerve
<figure><img src="figs/48_08SchwannMyelin_902bf3b.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption>[neuralcloud.it](http://neuralcloud.it)</figcaption></figure>
Note:
Discovered by German scientist Theodore Schwann. In 1839 he actually stated that all animal tissues are made of cells.
---
--
## Astrocytes
@@ -436,7 +456,7 @@ Note:
---
--
## Oligodendrocytes
@@ -451,6 +471,19 @@ Each cell can myelinate multiple axons
Note:
--
## Schwann cells
* Myelinate axons in PNS
* One axon per cell
<figure><figcaption>Cross section through PNS nerve</figcaption><img src="figs/48_08SchwannMyelin_902bf3b.jpg" height="200px"><figcaption>[neuralcloud.it](http://neuralcloud.it)</figcaption></figure>
Note:
Discovered by German scientist Theodore Schwann. In 1839 he actually stated that all animal tissues are made of cells.
---
@@ -465,9 +498,7 @@ Note:
Now let’s think about the cell type most responsible for the brain’s business of biological computation— the neuron.
It is…
It is the...
---
@@ -480,7 +511,7 @@ It is…
* Mitochondria
* Microtubules
* Golgi
* Cell division machinery
* Cell division machinery <!-- .element: class="fragment strike" -->
Note:
@@ -721,109 +752,6 @@ Note:
---
##Fluorescence Microscopy
* Fluorescent molecules absorb light at one wavelength and emit it at another-longer wavelength.
* Uses optical filters to allow only light of a given wavelength in and out.
* Can detect specific proteins or other molecules in cells and tissues.
* Fluorescein (emits green), rhodamine (deep red) are molecules that can be chemically coupled to proteins to detect their localization indirectly
* GFP, isolated from jellyfish is a protein (encoded by a gene) that has intrinsic fluorescence.
Note:
Fluorescent molecules can be detected with light in very small amounts. This lets us look at specific molecules within a cell if they are tagged with a probe. Remember that most animal cells are not fluorescent. The fluorophore absorbs light energy of a specific wavelength and re-emits light at a longer wavelength. The absorbed wavelengths, energy transfer efficiency, and time before emission depend on both the fluorophore structure and its chemical environment, as the molecule in its excited state interacts with surrounding molecules.
---
##Secondary antibodies recognize primary antibodies and are species specific.
<figure><img src="figs/figure25-21_22bac65.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="figs/image25_ee9722d.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
Can couple many things to antibodies
---
##Fluorescence Microscopy
<figure><img src="figs/0913_4d3b4cf.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="figs/0912_2075faa.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
Here is the maximum excitation and emission wavelengths of several common flourescent probes. The photon emitted is of lesser energy that the one absorbed. In a microscope a filter set is used to only allow a specfic wavelength in and out to the eye.
---
##Immunocytochemistry
If you want to look at a macromolecule inside a cell, but it is not fluorescent...use indirect immuno-fluorescence microscopy
<figure><img src="figs/0916_2c6f5e1.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
---
##GFP is an intrinsically fluorescent protein
[2008 Nobel prize site](http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2008/)
[2008 Nobel prize vid](http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&NR=1&v=90wpvSp4l_0)
<figure><img src="figs/0943_14318d1.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="figs/image_da3e017.pdf" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
Freshly translated GFP is not flourescent, but undergoes a self-catalyzed post-translational modification that generates a chromophore inside the barrel.
---
##GFP can be expressed under
##specific gene promoters
Figure 9-25 Molecular Biology of the Cell (© Garland Science 2008)
Here expressed in fly peripheral neurons
<figure><img src="figs/figure9-25_2b6a94b.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
Remember that GFP is a gene that encodes a protein. You can put it behind the promoter to detect which cells express a given gene.
---
##GFP can be used to create designer pets
[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/05/photogalleries/](http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/05/photogalleries/glowing-animal-pictures/)
<figure><img src="figs/image26_594c5d6.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
---
##All kinds of fluorescent protein variants these days
<figure><img src="figs/image27_9fff1ca.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
---
## Basic structure of a sensory neuron (afferent)
@@ -891,10 +819,10 @@ Note:
## Neural Circuits
* Neurons don’t function in isolation- they are organized into circuits that process specific kinds of information.
* Neurons don’t function in isolation, they are organized into circuits that process specific kinds of information
* Direction of information flow is important for understanding the function of a circuit
* Afferent neurons-carry information toward the brain
* Efferent-carry info from the brain
* Afferent neurons– carry information toward the brain
* Efferent– carry info from the brain
Note:

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##Fluorescence Microscopy
* Fluorescent molecules absorb light at one wavelength and emit it at another-longer wavelength.
* Uses optical filters to allow only light of a given wavelength in and out.
* Can detect specific proteins or other molecules in cells and tissues.
* Fluorescein (emits green), rhodamine (deep red) are molecules that can be chemically coupled to proteins to detect their localization indirectly
* GFP, isolated from jellyfish is a protein (encoded by a gene) that has intrinsic fluorescence.
Note:
Fluorescent molecules can be detected with light in very small amounts. This lets us look at specific molecules within a cell if they are tagged with a probe. Remember that most animal cells are not fluorescent. The fluorophore absorbs light energy of a specific wavelength and re-emits light at a longer wavelength. The absorbed wavelengths, energy transfer efficiency, and time before emission depend on both the fluorophore structure and its chemical environment, as the molecule in its excited state interacts with surrounding molecules.
---
##Secondary antibodies recognize primary antibodies and are species specific.
<figure><img src="figs/figure25-21_22bac65.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="figs/image25_ee9722d.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
Can couple many things to antibodies
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##Fluorescence Microscopy
<figure><img src="figs/0913_4d3b4cf.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="figs/0912_2075faa.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
Here is the maximum excitation and emission wavelengths of several common flourescent probes. The photon emitted is of lesser energy that the one absorbed. In a microscope a filter set is used to only allow a specfic wavelength in and out to the eye.
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##Immunocytochemistry
If you want to look at a macromolecule inside a cell, but it is not fluorescent...use indirect immuno-fluorescence microscopy
<figure><img src="figs/0916_2c6f5e1.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
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##GFP is an intrinsically fluorescent protein
[2008 Nobel prize site](http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2008/)
[2008 Nobel prize vid](http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&NR=1&v=90wpvSp4l_0)
<figure><img src="figs/0943_14318d1.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
Freshly translated GFP is not fluorescent, but undergoes a self-catalyzed post-translational modification that generates a chromophore inside the barrel.
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##GFP can be expressed under
##specific gene promoters
Figure 9-25 Molecular Biology of the Cell (© Garland Science 2008)
Here expressed in fly peripheral neurons
<figure><img src="figs/figure9-25_2b6a94b.jpg" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
Remember that GFP is a gene that encodes a protein. You can put it behind the promoter to detect which cells express a given gene.
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##GFP can be used to create designer pets
[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/05/photogalleries/](http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/05/photogalleries/glowing-animal-pictures/)
<figure><img src="figs/image26_594c5d6.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
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##All kinds of fluorescent protein variants these days
<figure><img src="figs/image27_9fff1ca.png" height="100px"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
Note:
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